OTTOMANS

It took 20 years for the Ottomans to conquer Kars. The principalities and kingdoms of north Iran and Caucasus did not give up on Kars for a long time and often fought with each other or with the Ottomans to claim the city.

In this transitional period some principalities, especially the Georgians and Persians, used religion to influence local people in order to dominate the city.

The Ottomans at this time took Kars during the Revan expedition, but could not hold it for long. Still, during that short period Kars was reconstructed, and roads and new suburbs were built. However Kars was invaded once more by the Persian Shah Abbas and was demolished once again.

The Ottomans recaptured the city in 1548 but until 1639 it kept changing hands between Ottomans and Persians. The Tabriz Peace Accord following the Ottoman- Safavid war and the Kasr-i Sirin agreement signed soon after by the Ottoman, Persian and Afghan states ended this period to the benefit of the Ottomans.

1Peace was only enjoyed until 1674 however, as another power was rising in the east. The Persian Kingdom first conquered part of Iran and then reached Kars from the north of Iran. During this invasion the people of Kars were besieged inside the castle and when the Persian king Nadir Shah stopped their water supply from the stream, they continued to resist by melting snow to drink. When Ramadan approac approached, Nadir Shah lifted the siege of Kars.

Nadir Shah died in 1744 but meanwhile the Persians were regaining power and attacked Kars twice. Another peace agreement was signed between the Ottomans and Persians, under which Revan was given to Persia and Kars remained with the Ottomans. This lasted until the 1800s.

The Ottomans were weakening economically. The empire lagged behind developments in the West and this led to a very painful period of regression. Poverty was increasing, especially in rural areas. The state was struggling to collect taxes and thus authorized local tradesman to carry out this task. State-owned lands were granted to certain notables and through this policy of creating powerful families from among the locals; others were exploited and were placed under a very heavy tax burden. Kars also suffered from this policy, especially during the very harsh rule of Murat IV .

In the 1820s when the treasury of the empire was empty, the Ottomans took out large loans at punitive interest rates from the West, while Western countries such as England and France supported the Ottomans against the expansionist policies of their rival Russia. These policies brought the Ottomans to war with Russia at Sebastopol.

Kars Castle in Nusretname. The miniature describing the Ebul Hasan Harakani Mosque and 12 Apostles Church. Photograph: Yildirim Ozturkkan Archive